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Publications | Recommended Reading | Regional Map and History Regional Map and HistoryThe following is a brief history of Yugoslavia and Post-Yugoslav States 1945 - 2000. Compiled by Marina Skrabalo
1945-1963: Constitution of the New Communist, Federal State The victory of the mass-scale People's Liberation Movement over nazism and fascism enabled the Communist party led by Josip Broz Tito to emerge as undisputed rulers of the new federalist Yugoslavia, consisting of 6 socialist republics (Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Serbia, Montenegro and Macedonia) and two federal autonomous provinces (Vojvodina and Kosovo, under partial jurisdiction of Serbia). The new state was founded on stated values of gender, ethnic, religious and class equality. Women were active members of the antifascist movement, in the roles of political activists, soldiers, medical staff and teachers. The Antifascist Front of Women provided a platform for articulation of specific women's concerns in the creation of the new society (women's literacy, public health, etc.) The new regime also introduced women's suffrage at the first elections in 1945. Over the years, proclaimed legal and representative gender equality did not fully translate into actual balanced power relations, since men still dominated as company and party leaders and as heads of prevalently patriarchal families. From 1945-1953 the Communist regime instituted itself by classical means of intense nationalization, elimination of class and political enemies, the harsh collectivization of agriculture and the centralization of the planning apparatus. Soon though, Yugoslavia diverged from the stereotypical script of the dictatorship of the proletariat and created its own unique "road to socialism." Yugoslavia's independence from the Soviet block (after 1948), was marked by leadership in the movement of the non-aligned countries and a more decentralized, entrepreneurial system of "workers' self-management." Under Tito, Yugoslav national and cultural identity, matched by "brotherhood and equality" of all ethnic groups recognized as nations (Croats, Serbs, Macedonians, Muslims, Slovenians and Montenegrins) or ethnic minorities (non-Slavs such as Albanians, Hungarians, Roma, Italians), was reinforced via education and propaganda. 1963-1980: Market Socialism and Political Liberalization Movements With the new constitution of 1963, which established self-management in all sectors, a period of economic liberalization started, moving the country toward "market socialism." Yugoslav citizens enjoyed a period of relative prosperity and freedom of travel until the crisis in the late 1970's and 1980's. Demands for political reforms were not granted by the regime. The reforms triggered demands for political and ideological liberalization and decentralization. Hence the "Croatian Spring" (1969-1971), a broad national and cultural revival movement by the reformist Croatian Communist party leadership. Its slogan, "For Balanced Sheets," called for transparency of economic relations between the republics. In Serbia, a parallel liberal movement blossomed, under the young reformist leadership, demanding socialism with a human face, but had a weaker national component. Although Tito crushed the movements and jailed the leaders of the Croatian Spring in 1972, two years later the new Constitution enacted some of the reformers' main demands by shifting considerable power to republics. Economic reforms matched by international loans resulted in a period of unprecedented economic growth throughout the 1970's. Yugoslav borders were open for economic and cultural exchanges with the West and the East. 1980- 1990: Dissolution after Tito and Rise of New Power Centers Tito's death on May 4, 1980, left a power vacuum inadequately filled by a weak rotating presidency made up of leaders from each republic. The ethnic Albanian national movement in Kosovo rose in 1981 and was met by political and police repression. In 1987, Slobodan Miloševic, a centralist Communist leader, rose to power in Serbia, giving voice to Serbian expansionism. Differences between republics grew stronger. In Slovenia, a vibrant civil society developed, demanding democratization and demilitarization of the Yugoslav society. In 1981, an ethnic Albanian national movement arose in Kosovo, demanding broader cultural and political autonomy for ethnic Albanians in Yugoslavia. The regime suppressed the movement and portrayed it as secessionist. Economic recession and inflation intensified due to foreign debt, the world oil crisis and structural problems. Efforts to "stabilize" the economy yielded few long-term results. In 1987, in Serbia, Slobodan Miloševic emerged as the most powerful Communist leader, backed up by the masses. He launched a series of mass demonstrations named "anti-bureaucratic revolution" that were targeted at the installation of the new party cadre loyal to Miloševic and the elimination of political autonomy of the Vojvodina and Kosovo regions. In Montenegro, Serbs loyal to Miloševic were put in power. In 1989, Miloševic built a monumental memorial and led the massive celebration of 600 years of the Battle of Kosovo, which Serbia lost to the Turks. The Battle of Kosovo is a centerpiece of Serbian collective memory and national identity. The 1989 rally was key to effective nationalist mobilization of the Serbs throughout Yugoslavia. The rising Albanian protests, growing into a broad non-violent resistance movement led by Ibrahim Rugova, were met by declaration of martial law by the regime. Civil initiatives developed primarily in Slovenia as well as in Croatia and Serbia, and to a smaller degree in Bosnia-Herzegovina, taking action towards the demilitarization and democratization of Yugoslav society. The peace, environmentalist and feminist movements were born. 1990: Multi-party Elections and Heightened Tensions In January 1990, the League of Communists of Yugoslavia collapsed due to deep divisions between proponents of a multi-party system, further decentralization of the federation (led by Slovenia and Croatia) and Miloševic's pushing for greater centralization and incremental reforms. Macedonia and Bosnia-Herzegovina searched for middle ground out of fear for their survival if the federation broke up. Miloševic issued decrees abolishing the autonomous status of Vojvodina and Kosovo and curbing educational and political rights of minorities. Other republics refused to sanction continuing Serbian repression in Kosovo. Multi-party elections were held in all in all republics throughout 1990, bringing victory to new nationalist parties in Croatia and Bosnia-Herzegovina. The Serbian minority in Croatia feared the new government (and the repetition of the persecution of the Serbs by the Ustasha regime in WWII). Serbian villagers armed themselves and blocked roads. Ethnic tensions and fear of war rose throughout the federation. 1991: Yugoslavia Dies Violently In the spring of 1991, the political crisis reached its peak as Miloševic tried to block the Croatian member of the collective federal presidency from taking office. Plebiscites on independence took place in Croatia and Slovenia, legitimizing the proclamation of independence by the two republics on June 25. Wars in Slovenia and Croatia followed, with the Yugoslav Army increasingly supporting the unitarist politics of Slobodan Miloševic. Slovenia's proclamation of independence provided pretext for the Yugoslav Army's attack on Slovenia, which ended in a quick withdrawal ten days later, since the capture of ethnically homogenous Slovenia was not within Miloševic's agenda. In Croatia, a full-scale war escalated, affecting more than a third of the country's territory. Parts of Croatia with a high number of Serbs in the South and the East seceded, declaring themselves the Republic of Serbian Krajina. The city of Vukovar surrendered to Serbian forces in November 1991 after months of siege and total destruction. After great reluctance, Macedonia declared independence in September 1991 and started to grapple with balancing the demands of social democrats, Macedonian nationalists, Albanian and other ethnic minorities. 1992-1995: Wars in Croatia and Bosnia-Herzegovina In January, international recognition of Croatia began and an unconditional cease-fire was signed. Under the Vance Peace Plan, UN-protected areas and peacekeeping missions (UNPROFOR) were set-up. However, the status quo in Croatia did not bring peace, while the war spread throughout Bosnia-Herzegovina, taking hundreds of thousands of lives over the next four years, until the Dayton Peace Agreement in November 1995. The parliament of Bosnia-Herzegovina declared independence on April 5, backed by 70% of votes in the February plebiscite. A day after peaceful demonstrations of citizens of Sarajevo, calling for peace between Muslims, Croats and Serbs, the Serbian militia, backed up by the Yugoslav Army, launched the shelling of the capital. Devastating war broke out, dividing Bosnia-Herzegovina first between the forces of the self-proclaimed Serbian Republic of Bosnia-Herzegovina and the central government. On May 11, 1992, the UN recognized Croatia, Bosnia-Herzegovina and Slovenia. In 1993, another war broke out between the former allie: separatist Croatian forces backed up by the Croatian Army; and the Bosnian Army. Mass-scale atrocities against civilians (concentration camps, massacres, rapes) and cultural heritage, with the purpose of "ethnic cleansing" of historically multiethnic territories ravaged the country, resulting in more than one million refugees and extreme vulnerability of the Bosnian Muslims and the central government. Sarajevo was besieged from May 1992 to December 1995. Despite the presence of the UN peacekeeping troops (UNPROFOR) since April 1992, the war continued. In July 1995, a major massacre of Muslim civilians was committed by the Serbian paramilitary in Srebrenica, which was proclaimed a safe zone by a UN resolution. From July to September 1995, major territories were returned from the local Serbs by joint military operations of the Croatian and Bosnian Army in Southern Croatia and Western Bosnia. In Croatia, the August "Operation Storm" caused a massive exodus of the local Serbs (130,000 - 200,000), atrocities against civilians and destruction of their property. Over the decade, the percentage of Croatian Serbs decreased from 13% to 5%. The response of the international community remained ineffective over the years until the Dayton Peace Accords was signed on November 21, 1995, creating two entities in Bosnia-Herzegovina: the "Serbian Republic" and a Muslim-Croatian federation within Bosnia Herzegovina. The Dayton Accords guaranteed the right to return of all refugees. In Croatia, the Erdut Agreement was signed at the same time, enabling a peaceful reintegration of the Danube Region, the last part of the Croatian territory remaining under Serbian control after the May Operation Flash (reintegration of Western Slavonia) and August Operation Storm. 1996-99: Post-War Reconstruction of Croatia and Bosnia-Herzegovina, Wars in Serbia and Kosovo Bosnia-Herzegovina started recovering from the war due to the extensive support and presence of the international community, which has practically ruled the country through the Office of High Representative and military back-up of NATO Stabilization Forces (SFOR). In Croatia, the peaceful reintegration of Eastern Slavonia was completed successfully by means of the UN Transition Administration 1996-98. The International Crime Tribunal for former Yugoslavia (ICTY) was established in The Hague in 1996. These efforts towards peacebuilding were contrasted by the escalation of the conflict in Kosovo between Albanians and police forces over 1998. A full-scale war, featuring a severe refugee crisis and seven weeks of non-stop bombing of Serbia by NATO, broke out in spring 1999. Waves of massive student protests calling for democratization shook Serbia in 1995-96 but failed to put Miloševic, who manipulated election results, out of power. In Montenegro, democratic forces took power in 1997. The repression in Kosovo continued, while the Albanian passive resistance movement was radicalized by the neglect of Kosovo in the Dayton negotiations. An underground Kosovo Liberation Army (KLA) was formed in 1996, calling for the independence of Kosovo. Sporadic attacks on Serbian police forces steadily escalated to an armed uprising in 1998. In spring 1998, a Serbian police/military campaign to reassert the territory was launched against Albanian villages accompanied by atrocities against civilians. Miloševic launched an offensive against KLA in March 1999, causing a major flood of refugees. The peace talks in Rambouillet broke down and the international community (USA and EU) responded by NATO air strikes, which targeted Serbia for 11 full weeks. The Serbian military responded by forcing more than one million Albanians out of Kosovo, creating a refugee crisis in Albania, Macedonia and Montenegro. In June, Miloševic accepted a peace plan, mediated by Russia and Finland, according to which Serbian troops withdrew from Kosovo and most Albanians returned to the region under the auspices of the UN and NATO. However, many of the Serbian minority did not return to Kosovo, while those remaining experienced discrimination. The Stability Pact for South Eastern Europe was initiated by the European Union (EU) and placed under the auspices of OSCE (Sarajevo Summit Declaration, July, 1999) providing a regional, cooperative framework for political and economic reforms of the Balkan states and their integration in Europe. 2000: New Wave of Democratization -- Changes and Uncertainties After the death of Croatian president Tudjman in December 1999, the ruling nationalist Croatian Democratic Union was defeated for the first time in the January 3, 2000, parliamentary elections, thanks to a broad campaign for change by six opposition political parties, civil society, and the independent media. In Kosovo, tensions between Albanians and Serbs remained high. Montenegro attempted greater independence from Miloševic's unitarist rule under the Republic's democratic government. Serbia's united front of popular resistance and opposition parties struggled to overturn Miloševic by means of massive voter's campaigns and non-violent protests. In Croatia, the new center-left coalition of six former opposition parties and the new president attempted to change the course of Croatian development by economic revitalization of the country, close cooperation with the international community, swift integration into European and world institutions, redressing of discriminatory policies against the Serbs, and implementation of two-way return, targeting Serbian refugees. In the first year with its new government, Croatia became a member of WTO and Partnership for Peace and started the process of application for membership in the European Union. However, severe social and economic crisis, coupled by attempts to prosecute war and corruption-related crimes, created continuous turmoil in the Croatian society. In Kosovo, violence and protests by both Albanians and Serbs continued in the divided town of Kosovska Mitrovica. In Kosovo, even under the auspices of the international community, the rule of law and respect of human rights for ethnic minorities, especially the Serbs, was not restored. With severe inter-ethnic hatred and no long-term political solution, the future of Kosovo remained uncertain. Montenegro's democratic government, in power since 1997, took steps towards greater autonomy from Serbia. Miloševic's regime's repression against the Serbian democratic institutions and civil society tightened in the eve of parliamentary elections. Despite the opposition's claims of victory in the first round, Miloševic remained determined to stay in power by announcing a second round of elections. In the dramatic events guided by masses of people in the streets and national strike and boycott of all state institutions, Miloševic stepped down and Vojislav Koštunica, of the Democratic Opposition of Serbia, became President of FR Yugoslavia. On December 24, the Democratic Opposition of Serbia, a coalition of 16 parties, won the parliamentary elections of Serbia. The restoration of international and regional relations became the new government's priority, including sensitive issues such as negotiations with Montenegro, first steps towards the political resolution of the status of Kosovo and extradition and trial of war criminals. Serbia stood ready to become a major regional recipient of international assistance for general physical and social reconstruction of the devastated country. Source: Encyclopedia Britannica |
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